Antarctica
Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent on Earth — a vast ice landscape surrounding the South Pole that is larger than Europe yet has never been permanently inhabited. Here scientists monitor the planet's climate and preserve the key archive of Earth's ice ages.
Antarctica at a glance
Key figures for the continent, as of 2025.
Location & geography
Antarctica surrounds the geographic South Pole and is entirely enclosed by the Southern Ocean — the youngest recognised ocean, which you can explore further on the oceans page. The continent covers roughly 14.2 million km², making it larger than Europe (10.2 M km²) or the entire Oceanian region, and it is the only continent with no permanent residents.
Almost the entire land surface lies hidden beneath an ice sheet averaging 2 km thick and reaching nearly 4 km in some places. The Transantarctic Mountains cross the continent and divide it into two geologically distinct halves: the vast, high-lying East Antarctica and the smaller, lower West Antarctica with its less stable ice sheet. The continent also has a narrow extension towards the north via the Antarctic Peninsula, which points towards South America.
Because the ice sheet is so thick and heavy, the bedrock beneath it is pressed down by metres — a phenomenon called isostatic depression. Without the ice, parts of the continent would lie at or even below sea level.
Climate
Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The interior is classed as a polar desert: precipitation is extremely low (less than 50 mm per year at the centre), yet because it is so cold the ice accumulates over millions of years. The coldest temperature ever recorded was −89.2 °C at the Russian Vostok station on 21 July 1983 (WMO).
Conditions along the coasts are somewhat milder, but even there katabatic winds — gravity-driven blasts of air cascading down from the high interior plateau — race across the ice at speeds exceeding 300 km/h. The continent experiences a severe polar night in winter (May–August) and midnight sun in summer (November–January), creating unique conditions for both researchers and wildlife.
Antarctica plays a crucial role in the global climate: it reflects sunlight back into space (the albedo effect), drives global ocean currents and hosts the ozone layer — which above the continent still shows a spring hole every year. The location in the southern hemisphere and isolation by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current amplify this effect.
Governance & the Antarctic Treaty
Antarctica has no government, no countries and no permanent population. Seven nations made territorial claims over parts of the continent during the twentieth century — but in 1959 twelve nations signed the Antarctic Treaty in Washington D.C., which entered into force on 23 June 1961. Today the treaty counts 56 signatory states, including all major powers (CIA World Factbook).
The treaty declares Antarctica an international scientific reserve. Military activity, nuclear tests and the disposal of radioactive waste are prohibited. All territorial claims are frozen — neither withdrawn nor recognised. Scientific research and the free exchange of results are at the heart of the agreement. On the page research stations of Antarctica you will find a full overview of all active stations.
The five best-known research stations give a sense of the international presence on the continent:
| Station | Country / operator | Location |
|---|---|---|
| Amundsen-Scott South Pole | United States (NSF) | Geographic South Pole (90° S) |
| McMurdo | United States (NSF) | Ross Island, 77° S — largest station |
| Vostok | Russia | East Antarctica, 78° S — coldest station |
| Concordia | France / Italy | Dome C, 75° S — altitude 3,233 m |
| Halley VI | United Kingdom (BAS) | Brunt Ice Shelf, 75° S |
Source: Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), British Antarctic Survey (BAS).
Plants & wildlife
Antarctica has no native land mammals. Its fauna depends entirely on the sea. The foundation of the entire food web is krill — small shrimp-like crustaceans that occur in enormous swarms. Fish, squid, penguins, seals and whales all feed on krill.
The emperor penguin is the only animal that overwinters on Antarctica and breeds on the ice — at temperatures down to −50 °C. The Adélie penguin is the most widespread species along the coast. Seals are plentiful: the Weddell seal ranges furthest south, while the leopard seal is a feared hunter that also preys on penguins. The fin whale, the humpback and the orca are regular visitors to the surrounding waters.
Higher plants cannot survive the climate. Mosses and lichens are the only plants found on ice-free rock — an extremely slow vegetation that can take decades to grow. Compare the extremely sparse biodiversity here with the rich wildlife of Oceania or the animal world of South America.
The ice sheet & sea level
The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. It holds roughly 90% of all the ice in the world and almost 70% of the planet's total fresh water (British Antarctic Survey). If it melted entirely, global sea levels would rise by more than 60 metres — a scenario that would flood coastal regions worldwide.
Climate change is accelerating the loss of ice mass, particularly in West Antarctica and on the Antarctic Peninsula. Ice shelves such as the Ross Ice Shelf and the Brunt Ice Shelf act as a cork in a bottle: they slow the land-ice glaciers behind them. When ice shelves break up or shrink, land ice flows into the sea more quickly.
Ice cores drilled by the research stations contain air bubbles from hundreds of thousands of years ago, allowing scientists to reconstruct historical CO₂ concentrations and temperatures — Antarctica as the archive of Earth's climate history.
Famous places
- 🧭South Pole — the geographic centre of Antarctica, 90° south latitude, situated at 2,835 m above sea level on the ice at the Amundsen-Scott station.
- 🏔️Vinson Massif — highest peak of Antarctica at 4,892 m, located in the Ellsworth Mountains in West Antarctica (USGS).
- 🌋Mount Erebus — active volcano on Ross Island, 3,794 m high, with a lava lake in the crater; one of the southernmost active volcanoes on Earth.
- 🧊Ross Ice Shelf — the world's largest ice shelf, roughly the size of France; the base for the early expeditions of Amundsen and Scott (1911).
- 🏜️Dry Valleys (McMurdo) — vast ice-free valleys in Victoria Land, considered the driest places on Earth; a unique moonscape.
- 🌊Lambert Glacier — the world's largest glacier at over 400 km long and 100 km wide; the drainage channel for a large part of the East Antarctic ice.
What time is it in Antarctica?
Antarctica has no formal time-zone law. Research stations generally use the time of the country that supplies or funds them — making communication with the home country and logistics simpler. New Zealand's McMurdo station therefore uses the same time as Christchurch; Vostok uses Moscow time.
At the South Pole itself all meridians converge. Every time zone literally passes through one point: it technically matters little which clock you choose. The Amundsen-Scott station opts for NZST/NZDT (New Zealand time), because most supply flights depart from Christchurch. More background on time zones is on all about time zones and the comparison page.
ExampleWhen it is Wednesday noon in the UK (UTC+0 in winter), it is already Thursday 00:00 at McMurdo (UTC+13 in summer) — midnight. At Rothera in British Antarctica (UTC−3) it is still Tuesday evening at 09:00. In summer Antarctica spans all time zones simultaneously.
Live time at four stations and a supply hub, based on your device.
🎒 For kids
Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. No people live here permanently — only penguins, seals and scientists in special stations. There are icebergs as big as a city. Read more in the easy version.
Frequently asked questions
Does Antarctica have a population?
Antarctica has no permanent residents. In winter around 1,000 scientists and support staff are based at research stations; in summer this rises to approximately 5,000 people (SCAR). The research stations page has more details.
Which country owns Antarctica?
No country owns Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty of 1959, which entered into force in 1961, froze all territorial claims and declared the continent an international scientific reserve with no military presence.
What is the lowest temperature ever recorded on Earth?
The Russian Vostok station recorded −89.2 °C on 21 July 1983 — the lowest temperature ever measured at the Earth's surface (WMO). The station lies at over 3,400 m altitude in East Antarctica.
Why does melting Antarctic ice threaten the climate?
The ice sheet holds about 70% of Earth's fresh water. Complete melting would raise sea levels by more than 60 metres. Climate change is already accelerating the loss of ice mass, particularly in West Antarctica (British Antarctic Survey). Compare this with other continents on the comparison page.
Sources
- Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) — population and station data
- British Antarctic Survey (BAS) — ice sheet, sea level and climate research
- CIA World Factbook — area and geography
- World Meteorological Organization (WMO) — temperature record Vostok 1983
- IUCN Red List — conservation status of wildlife
- Köppen-Geiger — climate classification
- UN World Population Prospects 2024 — population comparison